Fallacious Ethos (Group 1)
Ad Hominem -
Definition - an argument made personally against an opponent instead of against their argument. It usually involves attacking the claims of an opponent trying to invalidate their arguments, but can also involve pointing out true character flaws or actions irrelevant to the opponent's argument.
Example - If a girl claims that football is the best sport ever and I said that wasn’t true because her dad is a pro player and is obligated to say that I would be attacking the person instead of the argument.
Argument from Authority -
Definition - Claiming to be an expert and, on that basis, to be deserving of trust. When faced with an argument from authority, it is important to investigate the credentials of the speaker or writer.
Example - Weekend cooking classes don’t make someone an authority on recipes, though they can say they’ve studied cooking, to an extent. They could be considered an authority on some elements of cooking, but not all.
Appeal to Authority -
Definition - Using a statement taken out of context as authoritative support. For instance, it would be fallacious to use Malcolm X’s declaration “by any means necessary” to justify an oppressed group’s violence against police officers. Such an assertion ignores the context, and therefore the complexity, of Malcolm X’s statement.
Example - You want to justify your desire to commit a foolish act like a murder and quote Shakespeare’s As You Like It, “all the world’s a stage,” which compares the world as a stage and life as a play.
Argument from False Authority -
Definition - Using an expert in a specific field as an expert in all related fields. It would be fallacious to try to quote your chiropractor when writing a paper about heart disease.
Example - Although TV shows like CIS may seem realistic and the actors very persuasive with their acting, they can not be considered experts in criminology and not be seen as reliable sources for a paper.
Appeal to Anonymous Authority -
Definition - Using an appeal to authority, but not naming the source. This makes the information impossible to identify or verify. Phrases like “Studies show”, “Scientists say”, and even “Experts agree that” are examples of anonymous authority.
Example - “An inside source at the EPA revealed today that recent unpublished studies show that most of the legislative lobbying against the creation of wind farms and related alternative energy technology is funded by OPEC and the petroleum industry conglomerate. Their obvious goal is to keep America and the world dependent upon oi for as long as possible.” Sounds reasonable however the source isn’t named and the unpublished studies make the claim difficult to confirm.
Inflation of conflict -
Definition - Using a conflict between two authority figures as a reason to dismiss their arguments and knowledge. In others words, it is to say that no conclusion can be made about something just because two authority figures have different opinions about something.
Example - Your mom says you need to study for at least two hours each night, but your dad says you only needs to study for an hour. Since they disagree, you assume that neither of them know what they’re talking about so you should just not study at all.
Definition - an argument made personally against an opponent instead of against their argument. It usually involves attacking the claims of an opponent trying to invalidate their arguments, but can also involve pointing out true character flaws or actions irrelevant to the opponent's argument.
Example - If a girl claims that football is the best sport ever and I said that wasn’t true because her dad is a pro player and is obligated to say that I would be attacking the person instead of the argument.
Argument from Authority -
Definition - Claiming to be an expert and, on that basis, to be deserving of trust. When faced with an argument from authority, it is important to investigate the credentials of the speaker or writer.
Example - Weekend cooking classes don’t make someone an authority on recipes, though they can say they’ve studied cooking, to an extent. They could be considered an authority on some elements of cooking, but not all.
Appeal to Authority -
Definition - Using a statement taken out of context as authoritative support. For instance, it would be fallacious to use Malcolm X’s declaration “by any means necessary” to justify an oppressed group’s violence against police officers. Such an assertion ignores the context, and therefore the complexity, of Malcolm X’s statement.
Example - You want to justify your desire to commit a foolish act like a murder and quote Shakespeare’s As You Like It, “all the world’s a stage,” which compares the world as a stage and life as a play.
Argument from False Authority -
Definition - Using an expert in a specific field as an expert in all related fields. It would be fallacious to try to quote your chiropractor when writing a paper about heart disease.
Example - Although TV shows like CIS may seem realistic and the actors very persuasive with their acting, they can not be considered experts in criminology and not be seen as reliable sources for a paper.
Appeal to Anonymous Authority -
Definition - Using an appeal to authority, but not naming the source. This makes the information impossible to identify or verify. Phrases like “Studies show”, “Scientists say”, and even “Experts agree that” are examples of anonymous authority.
Example - “An inside source at the EPA revealed today that recent unpublished studies show that most of the legislative lobbying against the creation of wind farms and related alternative energy technology is funded by OPEC and the petroleum industry conglomerate. Their obvious goal is to keep America and the world dependent upon oi for as long as possible.” Sounds reasonable however the source isn’t named and the unpublished studies make the claim difficult to confirm.
Inflation of conflict -
Definition - Using a conflict between two authority figures as a reason to dismiss their arguments and knowledge. In others words, it is to say that no conclusion can be made about something just because two authority figures have different opinions about something.
Example - Your mom says you need to study for at least two hours each night, but your dad says you only needs to study for an hour. Since they disagree, you assume that neither of them know what they’re talking about so you should just not study at all.
Fallacious Pathos (Group 2)
Argument by Dismissal
- “Rejecting an idea without providing a reason or explanation for its dismissal.” (RM, P. 48)
- Example: Saying “This is America!” or, “You are free to live elsewhere if you prefer.”
The person is just stating claims of fact and dismissing the argument. We could live wherever we want in the U.S. but this does not solve or address the argument. - An older sibling saying “I’m older than you!” to get the younger one to stop arguing and take their side.
- “Using emotional words that are not supported by evidence and/or are unconnected to the argument being made.” (RM, p 49)
- Example: A student who is talking about president candidates and trying to persuade his friend into voting for his choice. THe student instead of giving factual or relevant information, decides to use the argument- my best friend, which is a dog, was hit by a car, and the government pigs didn’t give me any kind of compensation because Obama is president.
- “Drawing on irrelevant personal experiences or feelings in order to produce a sympathetic response” (RM, p 49).
- Example: A student was late to the test and got a bad grade so they think they should get a better grade than what they got because their car broke down and it was raining outside. Even though that does not apply to the fact that they either did not study or did not know the material, so the argument may seem relevant it is not because it is not logically relevant making the argument Fallacious.
- “Suggesting that a particular argument or course of action will lead to disastrous consequences without offering evidence” (RM, p 49)
- An example of this is the assumption that once someone starts gambling, they will spend all their money on gambling and eventually will do something illegal in order to support themselves.
- When X occurs, Y will certainly happen right after.
Fallacious Logos (Group 3)
1. Appeal to Nature: Suggesting a certain behavior or action because it is “natural.”
However, “natural” cannot be defined by one simple term. Example: “It is natural for all
women to want to have children.” This suggests that ALL women want to have children
by instinct. However, many women choose not to become mothers, and this can be
considered normal or natural too, depending on a society’s culture.
2. Argument from Ignorance: Assuming something is truth because it has not been
proven false. Example: Assuming your roommate took your missing wallet just because
she couldn’t prove to you that she didn’t. Although your roommate might not have been
able to produce an alibi, this doesn’t mean you should automatically consider her guilty.
3. Straw Man: Intentionally misrepresenting your opponent’s position by over
exaggerating his or her argument. Example: “Mormons want to convert every non-
Mormon they meet.” This statement fails to accurately represent their motivations,
which can be diverse. Many religions teach their followers to “spread the word,” but
characterizing Mormons as converters detracts from their true motivations.
4. False Dilemma: Assuming that there are only two options when there are in fact
more. Example: Buying a new car. They sale man says, “You can either buy this car
to get a great deal, or you can pay way too much buying one somewhere else.” Even
though the car may be a good deal, it is a false dilemma to assume that there are no other
good deals out there.
5. Hasty Generalizations: Drawing a broad conclusion based on a small minority.
Example: All Mexicans in Florida are illegal immigrants. Just because SOME Mexicans
are illegal immigrants, does not mean that all of them are.
6. Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (With This, Therefore Because of This): Confusing
correlation and causation. Thinking that because two things happened simultaneously,
then one must have caused the other. Example: There has been in increase in video
game sales and juvenile violence; therefore, video games make all youth violent. There
is no evidence to suggest that video games and juvenile violence are related to each other,
other than that their rates increased simultaneously.
7. The Slippery Slope: A way to scare readers into taking or not taking a particular
action. Also, it can function as a false invocation of logic or reason. It involves a casual
statement that lacks evidence. Example: If marijuana were made legal, vast numbers of
people would start smoking, which in turn will lead to mass unproductively and increased
numbers in school drop-out rates. This conclusion requires evidence to connect legality
of smoking to school drop-out numbers. It does not follow that everyone would smoke
irresponsibly if given the opportunity to smoke legally.
However, “natural” cannot be defined by one simple term. Example: “It is natural for all
women to want to have children.” This suggests that ALL women want to have children
by instinct. However, many women choose not to become mothers, and this can be
considered normal or natural too, depending on a society’s culture.
2. Argument from Ignorance: Assuming something is truth because it has not been
proven false. Example: Assuming your roommate took your missing wallet just because
she couldn’t prove to you that she didn’t. Although your roommate might not have been
able to produce an alibi, this doesn’t mean you should automatically consider her guilty.
3. Straw Man: Intentionally misrepresenting your opponent’s position by over
exaggerating his or her argument. Example: “Mormons want to convert every non-
Mormon they meet.” This statement fails to accurately represent their motivations,
which can be diverse. Many religions teach their followers to “spread the word,” but
characterizing Mormons as converters detracts from their true motivations.
4. False Dilemma: Assuming that there are only two options when there are in fact
more. Example: Buying a new car. They sale man says, “You can either buy this car
to get a great deal, or you can pay way too much buying one somewhere else.” Even
though the car may be a good deal, it is a false dilemma to assume that there are no other
good deals out there.
5. Hasty Generalizations: Drawing a broad conclusion based on a small minority.
Example: All Mexicans in Florida are illegal immigrants. Just because SOME Mexicans
are illegal immigrants, does not mean that all of them are.
6. Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (With This, Therefore Because of This): Confusing
correlation and causation. Thinking that because two things happened simultaneously,
then one must have caused the other. Example: There has been in increase in video
game sales and juvenile violence; therefore, video games make all youth violent. There
is no evidence to suggest that video games and juvenile violence are related to each other,
other than that their rates increased simultaneously.
7. The Slippery Slope: A way to scare readers into taking or not taking a particular
action. Also, it can function as a false invocation of logic or reason. It involves a casual
statement that lacks evidence. Example: If marijuana were made legal, vast numbers of
people would start smoking, which in turn will lead to mass unproductively and increased
numbers in school drop-out rates. This conclusion requires evidence to connect legality
of smoking to school drop-out numbers. It does not follow that everyone would smoke
irresponsibly if given the opportunity to smoke legally.
Fallacious Kairos (Group 4)
Red herring - Including irrelevant facts or any information that might stray away from the main argument
ex. 1 Invasion of Iraq was supposedly in connection between 9/11 and Saddam Hussein. 9/11 was caused by attacks from Al Qaeda, but Hussein was not connected to Al Qaeda and therefore has no relation
ex.2 The critique of grammar mid-argument to try and throw the argument off-course
ex. 1 Invasion of Iraq was supposedly in connection between 9/11 and Saddam Hussein. 9/11 was caused by attacks from Al Qaeda, but Hussein was not connected to Al Qaeda and therefore has no relation
ex.2 The critique of grammar mid-argument to try and throw the argument off-course
Argument from Authority - Argument involving speaker or writer claiming over authority in a particular area without giving evidence of that authority. Usually is used with ethos but can also be used with kairos
ex. 1 Politicians claim that if action is not taken at this very second, the nation could become ruined, claiming that they are an expert on both the problem as well as the timing.
ex. 2 Advertisements in which they say “call in the next 10 minutes and you’ll receive...” but you see the ad run 15 minutes from then.
ex. 1 Politicians claim that if action is not taken at this very second, the nation could become ruined, claiming that they are an expert on both the problem as well as the timing.
ex. 2 Advertisements in which they say “call in the next 10 minutes and you’ll receive...” but you see the ad run 15 minutes from then.